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  4. Piccolo gated: a CMOS 32×32 SPAD camera with all-solid-state nanosecond time gating and PCIe readout for single-photon time-domain DCS and near-infrared optical tomography
 
conference paper

Piccolo gated: a CMOS 32×32 SPAD camera with all-solid-state nanosecond time gating and PCIe readout for single-photon time-domain DCS and near-infrared optical tomography

Mos, Paul  
•
Lindner, Scott  
•
Zhang, Chao
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Razeghi, Manijeh
•
Khodaparast, Giti A.
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2024
Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering
20 Quantum Sensing and Nano Electronics and Photonics

The Piccolo gated sensor features a 32x32 SPAD array of single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) operating in time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC). The chip enables event-driven readout and a maximum count rate of 220 Mcps. The sensor is based on the original Piccolo architecture, whereas the pixel was redesigned to accommodate a sub-nanosecond time gating circuitry. As a result, the pitch was increased by 3 µm to 31 µm with a slightly lower fill factor of 23.7%. The time-gating circuitry comprises active recharge to activate the gate and a fast switch to de-activate the SPAD. The sensor is equipped with 128 dynamically allocated, 50 ps time-to-digital converters (TDCs) at the bottom of the array. Four TDCs are shared among 32 SPADs in each column, where a mechanism of reallocation is used to optimize the use of TDCs and to minimize photon loss. Time gating can reduce both uncorrelated and correlated noise by reducing overall active time and by increasing relaxation time after detection, respectively. Upon acquisition of TCSPC data, the FPGA reorganizes it in histograms, which may be dynamically allocated and reduced in the number of bins to optimize memory use and data transfer from the FPGA to an external Mac/PC. The TDCs may also be calibrated to suppress differential and integral nonlinearities on-FPGA. Timestamps are stored in DDR3 and streamed out of the FPGA through PCIe with a data rate of 5.12 Gbps. Thanks to these techniques, the maximum count rate of the sensor was increased by about 3×. The time gating feature was implemented to extend dynamic range, and therefore depth, of near-infrared optical tomography (NIROT) and g(2) multi-depth time-domain diffuse correlation spectroscopy (TD-mDCS). Time gating is especially useful in NIROT and mDCS, as it helps suppress large numbers of early photons reflected back from the sample’s surface, e.g. the skull or skin. Thus, the Piccolo-gated architecture could show its suitability in these imaging modality.

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Type
conference paper
DOI
10.1117/12.2692934
Scopus ID

2-s2.0-85205488931

Author(s)
Mos, Paul  

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

Lindner, Scott  

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

Zhang, Chao

Delft University of Technology

Wayne, Michael A.  

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

Milanese, Tommaso  

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

Bruschini, Claudio  

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

Charbon, Edoardo  

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

Editors
Razeghi, Manijeh
•
Khodaparast, Giti A.
•
Vitiello, Miriam S.
Date Issued

2024

Publisher

SPIE

Published in
Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering
ISBN of the book

9781510670501

Book part number

12895

Article Number

1289507

Subjects

Event-driven architecture

•

Gated imaging

•

Multi-depth time-domain diffuse correlation spectroscopy (TD-mDCS)

•

Near-infrared optical tomography (NIROT)

•

PCIe interface

•

Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs)

•

Time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC)

Editorial or Peer reviewed

REVIEWED

Written at

EPFL

EPFL units
AQUA  
Event nameEvent acronymEvent placeEvent date
20 Quantum Sensing and Nano Electronics and Photonics

San Francisco, United States

2024-01-28 - 2024-02-01

Available on Infoscience
January 26, 2025
Use this identifier to reference this record
https://infoscience.epfl.ch/handle/20.500.14299/245165
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